Dignity is a term used in moral Morality is a sense of behavioral conduct that differentiates intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good (or right) and bad (or wrong). A moral code is a system of morality (for example, according to a particular philosophy, religion, culture, etc.) and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code. Immorality is, ethical Ethics is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good vs. bad, noble vs. ignoble, right vs. wrong, and matters of justice, love, peace, and virtue, and political discussions to signify that a being has an innate right to respect and ethical treatment. It is an extension of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment is the era in Western philosophy and intellectual, scientific and cultural life, centered upon the eighteenth century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority-era beliefs that individuals have inherent, inviolable rights, and thus is closely related to concepts like virtue Virtue is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality deemed to be morally excellent and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being, respect Respect denotes both a positive feeling of esteem for a person or other entity , and also specific actions and conduct representative of that esteem. Respect can be a specific feeling of regard for the actual qualities of the one respected (e.g., "I have great respect for her judgment"). It can also be conduct in accord with a specific, self-respect Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame. A person's self-esteem may be reflected in their behaviour, such as in assertiveness, shyness, confidence or caution. Self-esteem can apply, autonomy In the subfield of Sociology called Sociology of knowledge, controversy over the boundaries of autonomy stopped at the concept of relative autonomy , until a typology of autonomy was created and developed within science and technology studies (MARANHÃO, 2005; 2006; 2007; SOBRAL & MARANHÃO, 2008). According to it, the contemporary form of, human rights Human rights are "rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Proponents of the concept usually assert that everyone is endowed with certain entitlements merely by reason of being human, and enlightened reason Reason is a mental faculty found in humans, that is able to generate conclusions from assumptions or premises. In other words, it is amongst other things the means by which rational beings propose reasons, or explanations of cause and effect. In contrast to reason as an abstract noun, a reason is a consideration which explains or justifies. Dignity is generally proscriptive and cautionary: in politics it is usually synonymous to 'human dignity', and is used to critique the treatment of oppressed and vulnerable groups and peoples, though in some case has been extended to apply to cultures and sub-cultures, religious beliefs and ideals, animals used for food or research, and even plants. In more colloquial settings it is used to suggest that someone is not receiving a proper degree of respect, or even that they are failing to treat themselves with proper self-respect.

The word "dignity" was first used in the Latin language Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. With the Roman conquest, Latin was spread to countries around the Mediterranean, including a large part of Europe. Romance languages such as Aragonese, Corsican, Catalan, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Sardinian, Spanish and others, are descended from Latin, while before the Renaissance The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the, then later by the French French is a Romance language spoken as a first language by about 136 million people worldwide. Around 190 million people speak French as a second language, and an additional 200 million speak it as an acquired foreign language. French speaking communities are present in 57 countries and territories. Most native speakers of the language live in, and finally the English language English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into South-East Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria. Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, and of.[1] While dignity is a term with a long philosophical history, it is rarely defined outright in political, legal, and scientific discussions. International proclamations have thus far left dignity undefined,[2][3] and scientific commentators, such as those arguing against genetic research and algeny Synthetic biology is a new area of biological research that combines science and engineering. Synthetic biology encompasses a variety of different approaches, methodologies and disciplines, and many different definitions exist. What they all have in common, however, is that they see synthetic biology as the design and construction of new, cite dignity as a reason but are ambiguous about its application.[4]

Contents

Philosophical history

Woodcut from Cesare Ripa's Cesare Ripa was an Italian aesthetician who worked for Cardinal Anton Maria Salviati as a cook and butler Iconologia depicting the Allegory of Dignity

A philosopher of the Renaissance, Pico della Mirandola, granted dignity to ideas and to beings. In his "Oration on the Dignity of Man", he told hostile clerics about the dignity of the liberal arts and about the dignity and the glory of angels Angels are messengers of God in the Hebrew Bible , the New Testament and the Quran. The term "angel" has also been expanded to various notions of "spiritual beings" found in many other religious traditions. Other roles of angels include protecting and guiding human beings. His comments implied the dignity of philosophers.[5] This oration is commonly seen as one of the central texts of the Renaissance The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Florence in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the, intimately tied with the growth of humanist philosophies.[6][7]

A philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment is the era in Western philosophy and intellectual, scientific and cultural life, centered upon the eighteenth century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority (1600s and 1700s), Immanuel Kant held that there were things that should not be discussed in terms of value, and that these things could be said to have dignity. 'Value' is necessarily relative, because the value of something depends on a particular observer’s judgment of that thing. Things that are not relative - that are "ends in themselves", in Kant's terminology - are by extension beyond all value, and a thing is an end in itself only if it has a moral dimension; if it represents a choice between right and wrong. In Kant's words: "Morality, and humanity as capable of it, is that which alone has dignity.”[8] Specifically with respect to human dignity, which his writings brought from relative obscurity in Western philosophy into a focal point for philosophers, Kant held that "free will" is essential; human dignity is related to human agency, the ability of humans to choose their own actions.[9]

Philosophers of the late 20th century who have written significant works on the subject of dignity include Mortimer Adler Mortimer Jerome Adler was an American philosopher, educator, and popular author. As a philosopher he worked within the Aristotelian and Thomistic traditions. He lived for the longest stretches in New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, and San Mateo. He worked for Columbia University, the University of Chicago, Encyclopædia Britannica, and Adler's and Alan Gewirth.[9] Gewirth's views on human dignity are typically compared and contrasted with Kant's, for like Kant he theorizes that human dignity arises from agency.[10][11] But while sharing Kant's view that rights arise from dignity, Gewirth focused far more than Kant on the positive obligations that dignity imposed on humans, the moral requirement not only to avoid harming but to actively assist one another in achieving and maintaining a state of "well being".[10]

Among other topics, including the dignity of labor,[12] Adler extensively explored the question of human equality and equal right to dignity.[13] According to Adler, the question of whether humans have equal right to dignity is intrinsically bound in the question of whether human beings are truly equal, which itself is bound in the question of whether human beings are a distinct class from all things, including animals, or vary from other things only by degree. Adler wrote that the only sense in which it is true that all human beings are equal is that they are equally distinct from animals.[14] "The dignity of man," he said, "is the dignity of the human being as a person—a dignity that is not possessed by things."[15] To Adler, failure to recognize the distinction challenged the right of humans to equal dignity and equal treatment.[16][17]

Dan Egonsson, followed by Roger Wertheimer, argued that while it is conventional for people to equate dignity with 'being human' (Egonsson's 'Standard Attitude', Wertheimer's 'Standard Belief'), both people generally import something other than mere humanness to their idea of dignity.[18][19] Egonsson suggested that an entity must be both human and alive to merit an ascription of dignity, while Wertheimer states "it is not a definitional truth that human beings have human status."

According to Arthur Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher known for his pessimism and philosophical clarity. At age 25, he published his doctoral dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, which examined the fundamental question of whether reason alone can unlock answers about the world objective definition of dignity is opinion of others about our worth and subjective definition of dignity is our fear from this opinion of others. [20]

Religion

Human dignity is a central consideration of Protestantism Protestantism is one of the four major divisions within Christianity together with the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, and the Roman Catholic Church. The term is most closely tied to those groups that separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation and Catholicism Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole.[9] The Catechism of the Catholic Church The Catechism of the Catholic Church is an official exposition of the teachings of the Catholic Church. A provisional, "reference text" was issued by Pope John Paul II on October 11, 1992 — "the thirtieth anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council" — with his apostolic constitution, Fidei depositum insists the "dignity of the human person is rooted in his or her creation in the image and likeness The Image of God is a concept and theological doctrine that asserts that human beings are created in God's image and therefore have inherent value independent of their utility or function of God God is the English name given to the singular omnipotent being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism." "All human beings," says the Church, "in as much as they are created in the image of God, have the dignity of a person." The catechism says, "The right to the exercise of freedom belongs to everyone because it is inseparable from his or her dignity as a human person."[21] The Catholic Church's view of human dignity, like Kant's, springs from human agency and free will.[10]

Human dignity, or kevod ha-beriyot, is also a central consideration of Judaism Judaism is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people. Judaism, originating in the Hebrew Bible and explored in later texts such as the Talmud, is considered by Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship God developed with the Children of Israel. According to traditional Rabbinic Judaism, God revealed.[22] Talmud The Talmud is a central text of mainstream Judaism, in the form of a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, philosophy, customs and history cautions against public charity to avoid offending the dignity of the recipient.[23] Medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides Moses Maimonides, also known as Rambam, was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher; one of the greatest Torah scholars of the Middle Ages. He was born in Córdoba, Spain on Passover Eve, 1135, and died in Egypt on 20th Tevet, December 12, 1204. He worked as a rabbi, physician and philosopher in Morocco and Egypt. With the contemporary Muslim in his codification of Halakha Halakha — also transliterated Halocho (Ashkenazic Hebrew pronunciation) and Halacha — is the collective body of Jewish religious law, including biblical law (the 613 mitzvot) and later talmudic and rabbinic law, as well as customs and traditions cautioned judges to preserve the self-respect of people who came before them: "Let not human dignity be light in his eyes; for the respect due to man supersedes a negative rabbinical command".[23]

An Islamic Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called view of dignity was set out by Mohammad-Ali Taskhiri, head of the Islamic Culture and Communications Organization in Iran Iran (Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and formerly known as Persia, is a country in Central Eurasia and Western Asia. The name Iran has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was widely known as Persia. Both Persia and Iran are, in 1994. According to Taskhiri, dignity is a state to which all humans have equal potential, but which can only be actualized by living a religious life pleasing to the eyes of God.[24] This is in keeping with the 1990 Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam The Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam is a declaration of the member states of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference adopted in 1990, which provides an overview on the Islamic perspective on human rights, and affirms Islamic Shari'ah as its sole source. CDHRI declares its purpose to be "general guidance for Member States [of the, which states that "True faith is the guarantee for enhancing such [basic human] dignity along the path to human perfection".[25]

Proclamations and Conventions

Through much of the 20th Century, dignity appeared in assorted writings as a reason for peacemaking and for promoting human rights. For example, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris. The Declaration has been translated into at least 375 languages and dialects, making it the most widely translated document in the world. The Declaration arose directly from the, adopted by the United Nations The United Nations Organization or simply United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of General Assembly The United Nations General Assembly is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation. Its powers are to oversee the budget of the United Nations, appoint the non-permanent members to the Security Council, receive reports from other parts of the United Nations and make on December 10, 1948, states:

Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

Subsequent proclamations also invoke dignity in the call for more rights. For example, the American Convention on Human Rights The American Convention on Human Rights is an international human rights instrument. It was adopted by the nations of the Americas meeting in San José, Costa Rica, in 1969. It came into force after the eleventh instrument of ratification (that of Grenada) was deposited on 18 July 1978 (1969), article 11(1), proclaims, "Everyone has the right to have his honor respected and his dignity recognized." The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights is an international human rights instrument that is intended to promote and protect human rights and basic freedoms in the African continent (1981), art. 5, insists, "Every individual shall have the right to the respect of the dignity inherent in a human being." All the international proclamations leave dignity undefined.[26]

At the beginning of the 21st Century, dignity was invoked as a reason to restrict freedom of expression. Clergy and laity invoked dignity to explain their agreement with resolutions that were being approved by the United Nations. Those resolutions bid all nations to restrict rights by imposing legal sanctions upon blasphemy Blasphemy is irreverence toward holy personages, religious artifacts, customs, and beliefs. The Abrahamic religions condemn blasphemy vehemently. Some countries have laws to punish blasphemy, while others have laws to give recourse to those who are offended by blasphemy. Those laws may discourage blasphemy as a matter of blasphemous libel, (defamation of religion) and upon all conduct that a religious person might find offensive.[27] One archbishop favored legal sanctions because, he said, it is "the manipulation and defamation of religion which threatens human dignity, rights, peace and security."[28] One law professor hoped "the law against defamation of religions may be constructed in a way that does not abridge legitimate speech including artistic freedom and yet protects the dignity of religion."[29] On 26 March 2009, the United Nations Human Rights Council The United Nations Human Rights Council is an inter-governmental body within the United Nations System. The UNHRC is the successor to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR, herein CHR), and is a subsidiary body of the United Nations General Assembly. The council works closely with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights adopted a non-binding resolution that states, "defamation of religions is a serious affront to human dignity leading to a restriction on the freedom of religion of their adherents and incitement to religious hatred and violence."[30]

Medicine

In the 20th century, dignity became an issue for physicians and medical researchers. It has been invoked in questions of the bioethics Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy of human genetic engineering Human genetic engineering is the alteration of an individual's genotype with the aim of choosing the phenotype of a newborn or changing the existing phenotype of a child or adult. It holds the promise of curing genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis, and increasing the immunity of people to viruses. It is speculated that genetic engineering could, human cloning Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human , human cell, or human tissue. The ethics of cloning is an extremely controversial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical twins are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of, and end-of-life care In medicine, end-of-life care refers to medical care not only of patients in the final hours or days of their lives, but more broadly, medical care of all those with a terminal illness or terminal condition that has become advanced, progressive and incurable (particularly in such situations as the Terri Schiavo case The Terri Schiavo case was a seven-year long legal case that revolved around whether Terri Schiavo — diagnosed as being in a persistent vegetative state (PVS) for several years could be disconnected from life support. As early as 1993, Terri's husband, Michael, as her guardian, had entered a do not resuscitate order for her but was convinced by, a controversial situation in which life support was withdrawn from a woman diagnosed in a persistent vegetative state A persistent vegetative state is a condition of patients with severe brain damage who were in a coma, but progressed to a state of wakefulness without detectable awareness. It is a diagnosis of some uncertainty in that it deals with a syndrome. After four weeks in a Vegetative State , the patient is classified as in a Persistent Vegetative State).[31]

International Bodies

In June 1964, the World Medical Association The World Medical Association , an international organization of physicians, was formally established on September 17, 1947, pursuant to the resolutions of the First General Assembly of WMA held in Paris, France. In 2007, the WMA had a membership of 84 national medical associations and represents some 9 million physicians issued the Declaration of Helsinki The Declaration of Helsinki was developed by the World Medical Association , as a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation, and is widely regarded as the cornerstone document of human research ethics. (WMA 2000, Bošnjak 2001, Tyebkhan 2003). The Declaration says at article 11, "It is the duty of physicians who participate in medical research to protect the life, health, dignity, integrity, right to self-determination, privacy, and confidentiality of personal information of research subjects."[32]

The Council of Europe The Council of Europe is one of the oldest international organisations working towards European integration, having been founded in 1949. It has a particular emphasis on legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural co-operation. It has 47 member states with some 800 million citizens. It is distinct from the invoked dignity in its effort to govern the progress of biology and medicine. On 4 April 1997, the Council, at Oviedo, approved the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine. The convention's preamble contains these statements, among others:

Conscious of the accelerating developments in biology and medicine;

Convinced of the need to respect the human being both as an individual and as a member of the human species and recognising the importance of ensuring the dignity of the human being;

Conscious that the misuse of biology and medicine may lead to acts endangering human dignity;

Resolving to take such measures as are necessary to safeguard human dignity and the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual with regard to the application of biology and medicine.

The Convention states, "Parties to this Convention shall protect the dignity and identity of all human beings and guarantee everyone, without discrimination, respect for their integrity and other rights and fundamental freedoms with regard to the application of biology and medicine."

In 1998, the United Nations mentioned dignity in the UNESCO Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights. At Article 2, the declaration states, “Everyone has a right to respect for their dignity.” At Article 24, the declaration warns that treating a person to remove a genetic defect "could be contrary to human dignity." The Commentary that accompanies the declaration says that, as a consequence of the possibility of germ-line treatment, "it is the very dignity of the human race which is at stake."

Canada

In 1996, the Government of Canada issued a report entitled New Reproductive and Genetic Technologies. The report used “the principles of respect for human life and dignity” as its reason for recommending that various activities associated with genetic research and human reproduction be prohibited. The report said the prohibited activities were “contrary to Canadian values of equality and respect for human life and dignity.”

[33]

Denmark

The Ministry of Health enacted the ‘‘Danish Council Act 1988’’, which established the Danish Council of Ethics. The Council advises the Ministry on matters of medicine and genetic research on humans. In 2001, the Council condemned "reproductive cloning because it would violate human dignity, because it could have adverse consequences for the cloned person and because permitting research on reproductive cloning would reflect a disregard for the respect due to the moral status of embryos."[34]

France

In 1984, France set up the National Consultative Committee for Ethics in the Life and Health Sciences (CCNE) to advise the government about the regulation of medical practices and research. In 1986, the CCNE said, "Respect for human dignity must guide both the development of knowledge and the limits or rules to be observed by research." The CCNE said that research on human embryos must be subject to "the rule of reason" and must have regard for "undefined dignity in its practical consequences."[35] The CCNE insisted that, in research on human embryos, the ethical principles that should apply are "respecting human dignity" and respecting "the dignity of science."[35]

Portugal

The National Council of Ethics of Portugal published its Opinion on the Ethical Implications of Cloning in 1997. The opinion states, “the cloning of human beings, because of the problems it raises concerning the dignity of the human person, the equilibrium of the human species and life in society, is ethically unacceptable and must be prohibited.”[36]

Sweden

Sweden's The Genetic Integrity Act (2006:351), The Biobanks in Medical Care Act (2002:297), Health and Medical Services (Professional Activities) Act (1998:531), and The Health and Medical Services Act (1982:763) all express concern for "the integrity of the individual" or "human dignity."[37]

Switzerland

The Constitution says Swiss citizens must respect the dignity of animals, plants, and other organisms. Accordingly, the Federal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH) published a brochure in 2008 about how researchers can respect the dignity of plants.[38]

United States

In 2008, The President's Council on Bioethics The President's Council on Bioethics was a group of individuals appointed by United States President George W. Bush to advise his administration on bioethics. Established on November 28, 2001, by Executive Order 13237, the Council was directed to "advise the President on bioethical issues that may emerge as a consequence of advances in tried to arrive at a consensus about what dignity meant but failed. Edmund D. Pellegrino, M.D., the Council's Chairman, says in the Letter of Transmittal to the President of The United States, "… there is no universal agreement on the meaning of the term, human dignity."[39]

Law

McDougal, Lasswell, and Chen studied dignity as a basis for international law.[40] They said that using dignity as the basis for laws was a "natural law Natural law or the law of nature has been described as a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere. As classically used, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature and deduce binding rules of moral behavior. The phrase natural law is opposed to the positive law (which is man-made) of a given approach."[41] The natural law approach, they said, depends upon "exercises of faith."[42] McDougal, Lasswell, and Chen observed:[43]

The abiding difficulty with the natural law approach is that its assumptions, intellectual procedures, and modalities of justification can be employed equally by the proponents of human dignity and the proponents of human indignity in support of diametrically opposed empirical specifications of rights . . . .

Canada

In 2004, Canada enacted the Assisted Human Reproduction Act. Section 2(b) of the Act states, "the benefits of assisted human reproductive technologies and related research for individuals, for families and for society in general can be most effectively secured by taking appropriate measures for the protection and promotion of human health, safety, dignity and rights in the use of these technologies and in related research." The Act prescribes a fine not exceeding $500,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, or both, if someone undertakes a proscribed activity such as the creation of a chimera.

France

In 1997, the National Consultative Committee for Ethics in the Life and Health Sciences, as well as other observers, noted that France's dignity-based laws on bio-medical research were paradoxical. The law prohibited the willful destruction of human embryos but directed that human embryos could be destroyed if they were more than five years old.[44] The law prohibited research on human embryos created in France but permitted research on human embryos brought to France.[44] The law prohibited researchers from creating embryos for research but allowed researchers to experiment with embryos that were superfluous after in vitro fertilization.[45]

Germany

Human dignity is the fundamental principle of the German constitution. Article 1, paragraph 1 reads: "Human dignity shall be inviolable. To respect and protect it shall be the duty of all state authority."[46] Human dignity is thus mentioned even before the right to life. This has a significant impact on German law-making and jurisdiction in both serious and trivial items:

Switzerland

The Swiss Constitution states at Article 7, “Human dignity is to be respected and protected.”[48] The Constitution mentions dignity again in relation to medicine and genetics:

Article 119a Transplantation Medicine

(1) The Federation adopts rules in the field of transplantation of organs, tissue, and cells. It provides thereby for the protection of human dignity, personality, and health. (2) The Federation establishes particularly criteria for the just assignment of organs. (3) Donations of human organs, tissue, and cells are free of charge. The trade with human organs is prohibited.

Article 120 Gene Technology in the Non-Human Field (1) Humans and their environment are protected against abuse of gene technology. (2) The Federation adopts rules on the use of reproductive and genetic material of animals, plants, and other organisms. It takes thereby into account the dignity of the creature and the security of man, animal and environment, and protects the genetic multiplicity of animal and plant species.

See also

References

  1. ^ Reference.com
  2. ^ "Those provisions concerning human dignity have not been authoritatively interpreted or applied by any of the competent, independent, international institutions." Bartha Maria Knoppers, Human Dignity and Genetic Heritage: Study Paper (Law Reform Commission of Canada, 1991), note, at 23. None of the international proclamations make dignity the rare quality that some commentators say it should be.
  3. ^ Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell, and Lung-chu Chen, Human Rights and World Public Order: The Basic Policies of an International Law of Human Dignity (New Haven: Yale UP, 1980), note, at 376.
  4. ^ Aldergrove says dignity means the set of attributes that distinguish an intelligent, solemn, sober, healthy, independent, adult homo sapiens (the model adult) from someone else, especially a young child or a lunatic. J. R. Aldergrove, Why We Are Not Obsolete Yet: Genetics, Algeny, and the Future (Stentorian: Burnaby, 2000) at 71.
  5. ^ Umich.edu
  6. ^ Cross, Neal Miller; Robert Carson Lamm; Rudy H. Turk (1984). The search for personal freedom. W.C. Brown. p. 4. ISBN 9780697031303.
  7. ^ Nauert, Charles Garfield (1995). Humanism and the culture of Renaissance Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. ISBN 9780521407243.
  8. ^ Immanuel Kant, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott (Second Section: Transition From Popular Moral Philosophy To The Metaphysic Of Morals).
  9. ^ a b c O'Hara, Phillip Anthony (1999). "Human dignity". Encyclopedia of political economy. Routledge. p. 471. ISBN 9780415187176.
  10. ^ a b c White, Mark D. (1 May 2009). "Dignity". in Jan Peil. Handbook of Economics and Ethics. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 85. ISBN 9781845429362.
  11. ^ Beyleveld, Deryck; Roger Brownsword (2001). Human dignity in bioethics and biolaw. Oxford University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780198268260.
  12. ^ Adler, Mortimer Jerome; Max Weismann (1 March 2000). How to think about the great ideas: from the great books of western civilization. Open Court Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 9780812694123.
  13. ^ See Adler, Mortimer (1952-10-10). "The Dignity of Man and the 21st Century". http://www.cooperativeindividualism.org/adler-mortimer_dignity-of-man.html. Retrieved 2010-06-13. ; Mortimer Jerome Adler (1993). The Difference of Man and the Difference It Makes. Fordham Univ Press. ISBN 9780823215355. , Mortimer Jerome Adler (1 December 1997). Six Great Ideas. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780684826813.
  14. ^ Mortimor (1997), 165-166.
  15. ^ Mortimor (1993), 17.
  16. ^ Mortimor (1993), 271.
  17. ^ Mortimor (1997), 165.
  18. ^ Dan Egonsson, Dimensions of Dignity: The Moral Importance of Being Human (Dordrecht, Sweden: Kluwer Academic, 1998) 132,
  19. ^ Roger Wertheimer, “Philosophy on Humanity,” in Abortion: Pro and Con, R. L. Perkins ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1974) 107-28.
  20. ^ A. Schopenhauer. Essays and Aphorisms
  21. ^ Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church.
  22. ^ Waxman, Mordecai; Tseviyah Ben-Yosef Ginor; Zvia Ginor (November 1998). Yakar le'Mordecai. KTAV Publishing House, Inc.. p. 66. ISBN 9780881256321.
  23. ^ a b Martin Sicker (2001). The political culture of Judaism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN 9780275972578.
  24. ^ Hafez, Kai; Mary Ann Kenny (2000). The Islamic world and the West: an introduction to political cultures and international relations. BRILL. p. 50. ISBN 9789004116511.
  25. ^ Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (30 August 2006). Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics. Westview Press. pp. 62. ISBN 9780813343358.
  26. ^ None of the international proclamations suggest dignity is the rare quality that some commentators say it should be. Aldergrove says dignity means the set of attributes that distinguish an intelligent, solemn, sober, healthy, independent, adult homo sapiens (the model adult) from someone else, especially a young child or a lunatic (Aldergrove, 71). Thurber says dignity "has gleamed only now and then and here and there, in lonely splendor, throughout the ages, a hope of the better men, never an achievement of the majority" (James Thurber, 'Thinking Ourselves Into Trouble,' pt. 3, Collecting Himself: James Thurber on Writing and Writers, Humor and Himself, Michael J. Rosen ed. (Harper & Row, 1989)).
  27. ^ G.A. Res. 60/150; U.N. Doc. A/Res/60/150; G.A. Res. 61/164; U.N. Doc. A/Res/61/164; G.A. Res. 62/154; U.N. Doc. A/Res/62/154.
  28. ^ Archbishop Defends Religious Freedom to U.N. Council 2006-07-14.
  29. ^ Khan, Liaquat Ali. 'Combating Defamation of Religions' 1 January 2007.
  30. ^ United Nations Human Rights Council on religious defamation," 26 March 2009 Retrieved 2009-03-30.
  31. ^ Gelernter, David (April 2008). "The Irreducably Religious Character of Human Dignity". in Bernan. Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays Commissioned by the President's Council on Bioethics. Government Printing Office. pp. 388. ISBN 9780160800719.
  32. ^ Declaration of Helsinki by World Medical Association
  33. ^ Bill in Parliament of Canada 1996
  34. ^ Gratton, Brigitte. Survey on the National Regulations in the European Union regarding Research on Human Embryos (July 2002), 16.
  35. ^ a b CCNE Opinion no. 8.
  36. ^ Gratton, Brigitte. Survey on the National Regulations in the European Union regarding Research on Human Embryos (July 2002), 53.
  37. ^ Swedish statutes.
  38. ^ Dignity of Plants.
  39. ^ Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays Commissioned by the President's Council on Bioethics March 2008.
  40. ^ Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell, and Lung-chu Chen, Human Rights and World Public Order: The Basic Policies of an International Law of Human Dignity (New Haven: Yale UP, 1980).
  41. ^ McDougal et al, note, at 70.
  42. ^ McDougal et al, note, at 69.
  43. ^ McDougal et al, note, at 71.
  44. ^ a b CCNE Opinion no. 053.
  45. ^ Cazeau, Bernard. (French) Senat.fr Retrieved 2009-04-11.
  46. ^ Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
  47. ^ German law about abortion.
  48. ^ Swiss Constitution.

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'Dignity' News
Martellus Bennett encourages youth to 'make it happen' - Dallas Morning News (blog)
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Martellus Bennett encourages youth to 'make it happen' - Dallas Morning News (blog)
Tue, 20 Jul 2010 01:53:24 GMT+00:00
Dallas Morning News (blog) Bennett was working with Dwell With Dignity , a nonprofit organization that helps design and furnish homes for people transitioning into more stable housing. ...
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'Dignity' Answers
What are some movies that are about struggling for dignity and justice in America?
Q. The question says it all! I need to be able to write a one page paper on any movie about an individual or a group struggling for dignity and justice in America. I need a list and I also want to know if A League of Their Own or An American Crime would work?
Asked by Corey - Sun Sep 20 17:20:06 2009 - - 1 Answers - 0 Comments

A. Norma Rae It's a movie that depicts the struggle for human justice (fairness) and dignity in the workplace. To Kill A Mockingbird. Through the eyes of "Scout," a feisty six-year-old tomboy, to kill a mockingbird carries us on an odyssey through the fires of prejudice and injustice in 1932 Alabama. Presenting her tale first as a sweetly lulling reminiscence of events from her childhood, the narrator draws us near with stories of daring neighborhood exploits by she, her brother "Jem," and their friend "Dill." Peopled with a cast of eccentrics, Maycomb ("a tired and sleepy town") finds itself the venue of the trial of Tom Robinson, a young black man falsely accused of raping an ignorant white woman. Atticus Finch, Scout and Jem's widowed… [cont.]
Answered by Michaelfan58 - Sun Sep 20 17:30:15 2009

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